What is the difference between a discussion and a conclusion?

The discussion interprets the results in detail — comparing to other studies, explaining mechanisms, weighing limitations. The conclusion is shorter and higher-level: it states what the study ultimately contributes and what should happen next. In some journals they are combined, but the conclusion's job is the take-home message, not the detailed argument.

Can you introduce new information in a conclusion?

No. A conclusion should not present new data, results, or arguments that weren't discussed earlier. Everything it asserts should already be supported by the body of the paper. New material in the conclusion signals that it belonged in the results or discussion and undermines the reader's trust.

How do you start a conclusion without saying 'In conclusion'?

Open by answering your research question directly, or by stating your central finding in plain terms — for example, 'This study shows that...'. The reader already knows it is the conclusion from its position, so signposting phrases like 'In conclusion' are usually redundant and can be cut.

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How to write a conclusion for a research paper

Q: What should a conclusion include?

A research conclusion should answer the question you posed in the introduction, restate your main contribution in a sentence or two, draw out the implications or recommendations, acknowledge the key limitation, and point to future work. It closes the loop the introduction opened — without simply summarising every section.

By Dr. Rafiq Muhammad, MD, PhD · Updated June 2026

A conclusion isn’t a summary — it’s the take-home message. It answers the question your introduction posed, states what the study contributes in a line or two, draws the implications, and points forward. If your conclusion just recaps each section, you’ve written an abstract in the wrong place.

What a conclusion does

Answers the question you opened with — close the loop the introduction started.
States the contribution — what we now know that we didn’t, in one or two sentences.
Draws implications — what it means for theory, practice, or policy.
Names the key limitation and points to future work.

The test: a reader who skips to your conclusion should learn what you found and why it matters — not a table of contents of what each section covered.

Conclusion vs discussion

The discussion does the detailed interpreting — comparing to other studies, explaining mechanisms, weighing limitations. The conclusion sits above it: shorter, higher-level, the message you want remembered. Some journals merge them; even then, the conclusion’s role is the take-home, not the full argument.

What to keep out

New data or results — everything you assert must already be in the paper. New material here means it was misfiled.
Overreach — don’t claim more than your study showed; a single study rarely “proves” anything.
“In conclusion…” — the position already says it. Open by answering the question instead.

A simple shape

Answer the question → state the contribution → implications → limitation + future work. It mirrors the introduction’s funnel in reverse: you started broad and narrowed to the study; now you widen back out from the study to what it means for the field.

Want the whole paper to hang together? See how each section connects in the IMRaD structure guide — the conclusion is where the introduction’s promise gets paid off.

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Frequently asked questions

What should a conclusion include?

Answer your question, restate the contribution, draw implications, name the key limitation, and point to future work — not a section-by-section recap.

Discussion vs conclusion?

The discussion interprets in detail; the conclusion is the shorter, higher-level take-home message and what should happen next.

Can you add new information?

No — everything must already be supported in the paper. New data in the conclusion means it was misfiled.

How to start without “In conclusion”?

Answer your research question directly or state your central finding — its position already signals it’s the conclusion.

How to write an abstract → How to write the discussion →